How Can High Levels of Corruption in Central and Eastern Europe Be Explained Essay Example for Free

How Can High Levels of Corruption in Central and Eastern Europe Be Explained Essay What impact does it have on societies at large? Corruption constitutes a significant part of politics in Eastern Europe to the extent that â€Å"talking about corruption is the way post- communist public talks about politics, economy about past and future† (Krastov, p 43). Transparency International defines corruption as â€Å"a misuse of public power for the private gain at the expense of the public good†. There are different types of corruption: bureaucratic, political –administrative, political legislative and judicial corruption. (Ott, p 72). Scholars introduced many potential explanations behind the astronomical levels of corruption in Central and Eastern Europe. In this essay I will examine the communist legacies as well as pre-socialist historical and political background as some of the factors that result in modern day corruption. I will additionally assess the impact of the transitional period on the corruption level. Furthermore it I will examine corruption’s negative costs, such as economic inefficiency and distortion of civil society, decline of the rule of law and, the rise in organised crime along with arguably positive consequences such as resolving bureaucracy and increase in productivity among the officials. Corrupt legal and political systems that were indicative of communist states have greatly influenced the region today. This is due to the connection between economics and politics in the socialist system, which is even closer than it is in liberal democracies (Krastev, p 180). People were forced by the system itself to cheat in order to achieve improv their lives. In western democracies, citizens were able to move around freely and had alternative employers, whereas â€Å"in socialist society with technically one employer it was hard to achieve wanted promotion†(Karklins, 80). Frustration at the system endorsed corruption as means of taking revenge at the system (Karklins). Because of â€Å"the legacy of seeking individualized solutions† became so widespread during socialism it had consequences on the macro level (Karklins). This became even more important following the break up of the USSR as â€Å"the politically linked were the biggest winners in the beginning of transition† (Karklins,p 83). For example, Hungarian communist youth organization purchased the main newspaper for only 1. 5 million forints yet in less than a year the paper was sold for over 100 million (Karklins,p 83). Socialism stimulated inequality during transition, when a â€Å"culture of functional friendship served to cover the exchange of favours as something pleasant and kind† (Holmes, p 79). This communist legacy remains strong in some countries, such as Moldova due to the inability of executive, legislature and judiciary to protect enforce a solid rule of law, which in turn forces people to seek for alternative protection, to the detriment of a strong civil society. Another legacy inherited by the region was the poor economic situation which led to a situation where a â€Å"considerable part of this unofficial regime entailed the second economy†(Karklins,p 76). Scholars such as Miller suggests, that this occurred because trust in the public good and social solidarity was undermined as the real socialist society was split up into â€Å"an archipelago of networks whose members were focused on exchanges with fellow network members at the expense of outsiders†(Miller, p). A huge gap emerged as â€Å"private and dysfunctional public structure; moral declined visibly too, replacing old values with â€Å"materialism and individualism† (Miller,p 193). I don’t understand what this means? As a result people were applying rules of the past regime in a new economy. Another factor was transition itself. As discussed by Karklins privatisation of the wealth of the communist states provided huge incentives and opportunities that were ill protected by insufficient regulation (Karklins p 80). Due to the vast opportunities that some exploited there was a sudden â€Å"internationalization of trade and finance†(Miller, p 52. ) Transition was conducted in an extreme environment. Communist regimes outlawed â€Å"independent, social, communal and civic groups but unofficial networks flourished(Miller, p 77). During the transitional period, in Eastern Europe most corruption took places â€Å"during business transactions with public administration and government offices† (Zuzowski, p 137), this in turn discouraged foreign investment. Examples provided by Walezcki state that in 1998 the Czech deputy prime minister and minister of environment resigned as a result of a political scandal concerning secret donations made to the Civic Democratic Alliance by Czech companies. CDA alliance received 1 million into its illegal Credit Suisse account. The party then used the money to pay for its 1996 election campaign (Walezcki, p 244). Political corruption such as this occurred during the transition period at all levels of society and was poorly regulated, which allowed itto become widespread. Additionally, the uniqueness of the eastern European case following the collapse of the centralised state, allowed favourable circumstances and opportunities that almost sanctioned corruption. According to LS (who’s LS? )â€Å"old habits die hard, and established structures and procedures remain to influence, both through inertia and as a safety net in confusing times†(p 89(LS). However, there is an alternative view that suggests that corruption is not culturally inherited and permanent, but is actually temporary. It can be argued that this is due to â€Å"self-conscious awareness of the phenomenon that suggests that the blurring of norms and the tolerance for deviance is regarded by the public only as an exceptional response to exceptional times, public norms and values remain intact†. (Miller, p283). This theory suggests that habits inherited from a communist past don’t influence current norms. However this is disputable , since according to survey 82 percent of Czechs considered corruption to be the most serious problem in their society in 1996 and almost half of the population believed corruption is permanent part of country’s culture (Zuzowski p 138 ). Another explanation of high corruption clarifies may give an insight as to why the levels vary throughout the region. Looking at the history of countries before the communist take overs and the character of those takeovers may provide an alternative explanation. As demonstrated by Holmes, Eastern Europe was under influence of various empires with different cultures before USSR’s capture, for example Romania was under Ottoman Empire, while Hungary was under Austrian influence. Empirical evidence seconds this opinion: firms stating bribery as frequent in Romania is 15%, while Hungary 8 % (BEEPS, 2008). Another factor that explains difference in corruption tolerance is the â€Å"urbanization and economic development†(Holmes, p 160), which also refers to difference in mentalities. For instance, in the Baltics states, tolerance to corruption was lower and in Georgia because Baltics were more developed â€Å"resulting in different attitudes towards personalized power† (Holmes, p 160). The way in which the communists came to power is equally critical as â€Å"an indicator of subsequent popularity some countries came to support communism like Russia, while in others such as Poland the regime was virtually imposed upon a reluctant citizenry by a Soviet army†(Holms). It is thus their way of rebelling against the system â€Å"with no tradition of popular endorsement†,(Holems, p 160). Nevertheless, this explanation has also been challenged by anti-corruption science, which states that corruption is not dependent on culture but is â€Å"characteristic of institutional environments and characteristic of certain policies†, (K, p 31). This is not always the case however as the question of morality and people’s acceptance of corruption as a norm in Eastern Europe compared to West should be considered. Cultural heritage seems to influence perception on corruption; the difference among the region shows it. EU-8 countries have improved their corruption rates due to EU membership, however their levels of corruption increased again: Slovenia’s and Slovakia’s corruption levels rose by 2% between 2005-2008. The question one must ask is why this happened even though EU regulations and policies towards corruption haven’t changed. High levels of corruption have multiple consequences on the whole society; some of them are negative, some of them are paradoxically positive. According to Bayley negative effects include undermining of formal rules and the rule of law (Bayley, p)The meaning of corruption during communist times was uncertain due to the â€Å"overriding importance of power and institutional interests†(Karklins,P 76). Karklins emphasises that negative consequences of these practices affected the whole of society, as they distorted the â€Å"popular attitudes towards law, equal opportunity, merit, fairness†. Corruption also diminishes the role of the political system by being an informal alternative to institutions (Karklins P 80). Consequently corruption undermines democracy and furthermore the rule of law. For example, in Bulgaria the head of Communist Party from 1954- 1989, Zhivkov, appointed his daughter to high positions, which resulted in her being th4 second most important person in Bulgaria (Holmes, p). Corruption promotes social inequality, because the wealthy can always be protected due to the influence of money on the law. It also creates financial inequality, as it provides opportunities for financially secured people, whilst leaving poor in the bigger disadvantage. Likewise, the continuing role of exclusive personal networks is problematic because they â€Å"limit how eager people are to join other groups, thus undermining civil society†(Bayley). It is argued that the persistence of communist-era exclusive networks worsens development of a civil society (p 89. LS). Similarly, proposed by Ott, corruption is potentially a very destabilizing force because of the abuse on the part of those inside the system that may encourage citizens to become distant with he activities of the state and weaken their own willingness to support the state, for instance by refusing to pay the taxes (Ott, p 67). There are some extreme consequences introduced by Bayley. For instance, corruption can weaken the state as, â€Å"The failure of state to enforce rules creates vacuum to be filled by the organized crime. If government and the judicial system are so corrupt that they cannot help the contract to be enforced the only available enforcer is the mafia†( Bayley, p). This may result in organized crime being â€Å"both a source and product of rising corruption†, (krastev, p 9). It may even lead to political instability and revolution. High levels of corruption can become highly problematic since â€Å"systemic corruption it is impossible to control†. (Zuzowski) Conversely, there is also â€Å"useful corruption† as according to W. Clark it cuts red tape and reduces bureaucratic rigidity (Karklin, p 78). Corruption can increase the â€Å"responsiveness of bureaucrats to individual and group needs (Holmes, p 730). For instance, the power holders accepted the use of blat as â€Å"an informal practice to smooth socioeconomic transactions†(Karklins,p 79). Especially in socialism corruption assisted to overcome some economic problems like shortages. Moreover, corruption may result in â€Å"increased allocations of resources away from consumption and into investment. The key element for the corrupted and the corruptor to consume and invest† Scholars argue that corruption may not always represent â€Å"net drain from investment† (Bayley, p) but it may be the case that government servants with unique access to information about prospects for economic development have greater propensity to invest in productive enterprises. Corruption has serious consequences for the whole society, typically they are negative, since â€Å"benefits are primarily in the realm of politics† (Bayley, p 730). However, â€Å"the analysis has shown that net effects of corrupt practices upon economic development are not always of baneful nature†, (Bayley, p 730). It is thus important to consider some benefits of corruption for post-communist countries and not only focus on the negative. To conclude, â€Å"corruption is the most powerful policy narrative in the time of transition†(Krastev, p 93). Even though there are many factors that provoke rise of corruption, the communist legacy is â€Å"singled out as the critical domestic pre-condition for the rise of corruption† (Krastev, p 53). Other factors such as the crisis of legitimacy and the low trust in the public institutions are also part of explanation (Karklins, p 53). Concerning the consequences, it is obvious that corruption can undermining the development of a strong society, as well as having detrimental impact on politics and economics. It is hard however to assess the whole impact due to lack of data, so the picture will always be distorted. â€Å" It is a crime that nobody is interested to report, and the cases of corruption ending in a court are insignificant in comparison with the number of corruption transactions taking place† (G, p 25). Additionally, the rise in corruption can be a result of either increase of corruption or â€Å"increase of corruption visibility†, especially due to the attention that the subject receives from media (Krastev. p 10).

Dystopai Society :: essays research papers

The Government and Total Human Control   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Ray Bradbury’s novel Fahrenheit 451, in George Orwell’s 1984, and in Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World a unifying thread is present—the government must have total control of all aspects of society. It must control thought, it must control media, and it must control one’s usefulness to the totalitarian society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Fahrenheit 451, the government assumes total control by banning all books and other reading material. By banning and burning the contraband if necessary, the government can prevent philosophical thought. The government can also guarantee this by getting people to buy giant televisions, the size of walls, which play television sitcoms in which the family can star. Not only do the pointless programs discourage intellectual thought, but they also entertain the family enough so that the family has no reasons to read and/or think deeply about the meaning of the world around them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1984, the government is a bit more lenient as they will let everyone read, but they edit all reading material so that the materials favor the Party. For the party, revising old articles and other media will ensure that no one will revolt since the rewritten material always favors the Party. Even if a proletariat were to revolt, the Party could eliminate his existence from all forms of media. The Party vaporizes people’s existence to a point where most people do not even think about the vaporized person. By always making sure written history is pro-Party, the Party can ensure its totalitarian government.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In A Brave New World, the government not only controls how one thinks, but it also controls one’s physical usefulness to his society. By genetically engineering one’s body, the government can make it infinitely useful to itself. To make that one body feel no pain, to make the soul feel like it belongs to the society, and to make the mind open to any ideas is a vital asset for this government. The people are not always worried about death and can always relax in this utopian society since other people pleasure them, and with a society of happy people, the government never fears a revolt.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By controlling what an individual thinks, does, or feels, the government always prospers.

Looking for Alaska Essay

John Green’s 2006 novel Looking for Alaska personally affected me as I could relate to one of the main characters Miles (Pudge). The theme of belonging was also very relevant as this novel touches on the concern of Miles fitting into his new school and finding out how everything works at Culver Creek Preparatory. I directly can relate to Miles in this sense as I am still new and am trying to figure out how my new school works and also finding a friendship group that I am comfortable in. This novel is great because it raises questions about individuals understanding of true friendship, love, loyalty and having a sense of belonging. It shows the importance of truly living life to the fullest rather that just watching it fly by. The conflicts within the characters themselves lead readers inward to examine how much everyone needs a sense knowing where we belong. Pudge buys the cigarettes to show that he can be a part of his new friendship group’s crowd. A certain amount of peer pressure was probably involved, with Pudge worried about ‘fitting in’ and making friends. â€Å"The Colonel talked me into paying five dollars for a pack of Marlboro Lights I had no intention of ever smoking. † I think that by Miles giving into this peer pressure he would hope that it would make him feel more normal and apart of that what his friends were partaking in. The use of first person narrative point of view allowed me to experience things as Miles does. It gave me a deeper understanding of how he is affected by people, events and his own reactions and feelings as the novel progresses. This is no more clearly seen than in the event of Alaska dying, I was limited to Miles’ own feelings and emotions surrounding her death. The idea of guilt and loss becomes apparent as we see him struggle to deal with her death and the role he played in it, with him trying to figure out where he belongs. He experiences a loss of innocence as he is forced to re-evaluate his philosophy on life and find his own place in the world. Alaska’s death aids in Miles’ coming-of-age journey. â€Å"I felt the total loss of her, still reeling from the idea that she was not only gone from this world, but from them all† This can be very relatable for other audiences who might have suffered a great loss like Miles’. Looking for Alaska depicts many messages about one’s vital need to belong, some of which I can personally relate to. As well as other aspects of the novel that other audiences can personally relate to.

Fahrenheit 451 By Ray Bradbury - 1564 Words

In Fahrenheit 451, Bradbury highlights the strong impact literature has on people through a society that views books as threats, therefore, banning them. The citizens aren t able to see through the forms of control that the government utilizes to prevent questioning and promote uniformity, although some do have their own views of the world which can be shown through the characters actions, as well as songs. Both Montag, Mildred, the theme of technological control, and the event of Montag meeting Granger of Ray Bradbury s Fahrenheit 451 are portrayed through â€Å"All Eyes† by imagine dragons, â€Å"Open Your Eyes† by snow patrol, â€Å"Robot† by Miley Cyrus, and â€Å"What I’ve been looking for† by Ashley Tisdale and Lucas Grabeel because their identities†¦show more content†¦Montag sees the potential in books and can’t keep these rising feelings to himself. Just as the song describes, Montag was wearing a mask and posing to be somet hing he’s not until Clarisse openes his eyes to a new world. The song later says, â€Å"All eyes, they re on you Don t deny, you ve got to This is a call, that s all you ll ever get from me† (Imagine Dragons). This applies to Montag’s life because all eyes are on him due to his unique thoughts, so when people see that his beliefs disrupt the uniform society, they judge him because they aren’t able to see through the governmental control. For instance, when Montag is able to uncover the beauty of poetry, he can t help but read a poem to Mildred and her friends, only for them to see the poem as a threat because they can’t understand the true meaning behind it. Mildred and her friends aren t willing to break out this bubble that the government has trapped most of society in. The song â€Å"Open Your Eyes† by Snow Patrol holds ideas that can be applied to Mildred’s lifestyle and her thoughtless acceptance of societal expectations. A verse from the song goes like, â€Å"Tell me that you’ll open your eyes† â€Å"Get up, get out, get away from these liars Cause they don t get your soul or your fire† (Snow Patrol). Mildred is the one who is living with her eyes closed, going along with what’s supposed to be correct because she is too afraid have diverse thoughts. Mildred is unwillingly manipulate into thinking thatShow MoreRelatedFahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury719 Words   |  3 PagesThe flash point of paper, or the temperature at which paper will burst in flames, is 451 degrees Fahrenheit. In Fahrenheit 451, written by Ray Bradbury, the main character, Guy Montag, is a â€Å"fireman† in a futuristic society where he and his coworkers start fires, rather than put them out. Books are banned and burned, along with the owner of the book’s house and sometimes even the owner of the book, upon discovery. Technology has taken over in a sense that social interaction between the average personRead MoreFahrenheit 451 By Ray Bradbury1952 Words   |  8 Pagesis clearly displayed in the plight of Ray Bradbury’s novel about a dystopian American society, Fahrenheit 451, which co ntains many ideas and bits of content that some people believed should be censored. In fact, one of the reasons that this novel was censored for displaying the dangers of censorship, which is both extremely ironic, and telling as to where this society is going. Thanks to several distributors and oversensitive parents and teachers, Fahrenheit 451 has been banned in many schools overRead MoreFahrenheit 451 By Ray Bradbury954 Words   |  4 Pages In Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury, the author uses allegory (often misinterpreted by readers) to show the dangers of mass media consumption and the decline of reading traditional media. Many readers draw incorrect conclusions (lessons learned) from the book due to how generally the book applies its theme. Government censorship, though an important topic, is not the intended focus of the novel Fahrenheit 451. Finally, Bradbury’s original message of the book shows the beauty of traditional media andRead MoreFahrenheit 451 By Ray Bradbur y1592 Words   |  7 PagesWhen writing the introduction to Fahrenheit 451, author Neil Gaiman stated that â€Å"ideas--written ideas--are special. They are the way we transmit our stories and our thoughts from one generation to the next. If we lose them, we lose our shared history†. Gaiman is absolutely correct; especially because what he is saying heavily applies to books. Books are a critical aspect in shaping humanity as a whole, they create and share a network of creative ideas, history, and overall entertainment; to loseRead MoreFahrenheit 451 By Ray Bradbury918 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"Fahrenheit 451,† written by Ray Bradbury, is a futuristic, dystopian novel based upon a society secluded by technology and ignorance. In this future society, books are outlawed and firemen are presented with the task of burning books that are found in people’s homes. Montag, a fireman, finds himself intrigued with the books, and begins to take them home and read them. A s the story progresses, Montag learns the truth behind why books are outlawed and flees his city to join the last remnants of age-oldRead MoreFahrenheit 451 By Ray Bradbury847 Words   |  4 PagesSet Knowledge On Fire The book Fahrenheit 451 is a postmodern work by Ray Bradbury first published in 1951. In Bradbury’s story, all books are illegal and are subject to be burned by firemen. Furthermore, the two predominant themes of Fahrenheit 451 are censorship and ignorance. The censorship implemented over the years removes all information from society that is necessary to learn, which accomplishes to prevent people from questioning anything. The ignorance of society has been fostered and theRead MoreFahrenheit 451 By Ray Bradbury1661 Words   |  7 Pages1.) In the novel, Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury, Montag’s view on life reverses. Two characters the influence the main character Guy Montag are the old lady whose house and books were burnt down and Mildred. The old lady was caught preserving books in her home. Firemen including Montag were ordered to burn the books. The old lady refused to leave her books, so she too was burned. She bravely gave an allusion as her last words, â€Å"Play the man,’ she said, ‘Master Ridley.’ Something, somethingRead MoreFahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury818 Words   |  4 PagesFAHRENHEIT 451 BY RAY BRADBURY Important People in Montag’s Life In Partical Fulfillment Of English 2 Ms Irina Abramov By Helen Hernandez November 9, 2012 â€Å"There are worse crimes than burning books. One of them is not reading them† -Ray Bradbury. In the past there were events that affected book writers. People will get together to burn books because they thought it was inappropriate or they were against their literature. Montag is a fireman in a futuristic society who would startRead MoreFahrenheit 451 By Ray Bradbury863 Words   |  4 PagesThe novel, Fahrenheit 451 was written by Ray Bradbury and it took place in the dystopian future. Throughout each novel, we are able to see a major theme, which is censorship. In this essay, I will explain how this theme are explored in the story by using the literary devices. To begin with, in this novel, censorship is not given a straight description, but we can see how the author shows it through many literary elements, such as using the setting, tone and symbolisms even foreshadowing. This novelRead MoreFahrenheit 451 By Ray Bradbury1544 Words   |  7 PagesRay Bradbury, the author of Fahrenheit 451, expresses his perspective on life in an interview. His interview contains a common theme: Do what you love, and love what you do (Bradbury). Bradbury sends a message in his interview that people should love life, and live to the fullest because he believes life is a beautiful thing. Although Bradbury no longer can demonstrate his love for life his message still lives in the pages of Fahrenheit 451. The Government of the society in the novel has told their